Nystatin

Ionic Leakage and Disruption of Cellular Electrochemical Gradients

Susceptibility Profiles of Candida Species

This compound shows favorable activity against most Candida species. asm.org Studies have indicated high susceptibility rates among Candida albicans and non-albicans Candida species. asm.org For instance, one study found that 87.2% of C. albicans and 85.9% of non-albicans Candida isolates were susceptible to this compound in vitro. asm.org Another study evaluating isolates from drug abusers with oral candidiasis reported that all Candida isolates tested were susceptible to this compound. nih.gov Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values for this compound against C. albicans have been reported in the range of 1 to 4 µg/mL. unirioja.es In a study using the agar dilution method, MIC values for this compound against various Candida species ranged from 0.625 µg/mL to 1.25 µg/mL. oatext.com

Here is a summary of in vitro susceptibility data for this compound against Candida species based on the search results:

Note: Susceptibility criteria and methods may vary between studies.

Activity Against Non-Candida Fungi (e.g., Rhodotorula, Torulopsis, Trichosporon, Aspergillus)

This compound also exhibits activity against certain non-Candida fungi. Studies have shown its effectiveness against species like Rhodotorula, Torulopsis, and Trichosporon. acspublisher.comcabidigitallibrary.orgresearchgate.net For example, one study on fungal isolates from bovine mastitis reported 100% sensitivity to this compound among Rhodotorula rubra and Torulopsis sp. isolates. acspublisher.com Trichosporon spp. have also shown susceptibility to this compound in vitro, with reported mean MICs of 0.54 mg/L. researchgate.net

Against Aspergillus species, the activity of conventional this compound appears to be less potent compared to other polyenes or its liposomal formulation. One study comparing liposomal this compound with conventional this compound and other antifungals against Aspergillus isolates found that conventional this compound had higher geometric mean MICs (9.51 µg/ml) compared to liposomal this compound (2.30 µg/ml) and amphotericin B formulations. nih.gov Aspergillus terreus was found to be significantly less susceptible to polyene drugs, including this compound, than other Aspergillus species. nih.gov

Here is a summary of in vitro activity data for this compound against selected non-Candida fungi:

Alterations in Ergosterol Biosynthesis Pathways

Changes in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway are a primary mechanism of resistance to polyenes. mdpi.comejgm.co.ukasm.orgnih.gov Modifications, either quantitative or qualitative, in the sterol content of the fungal cell membrane can influence the amount or availability of ergosterol for polyene binding. ejgm.co.ukasm.org Studies using polyene-resistant strains have shown a marked decrease in membrane ergosterol content, with ergosterol being replaced by biosynthetic precursors such as lanosterol, fecosterol, lichesterol, and episterol. ejgm.co.uk This decrease in ergosterol content can lead to decreased susceptibility to polyenes. asm.org

Mutations in specific genes involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, such as ERG genes, have been linked to polyene resistance. nih.govasm.org For instance, mutations in the ERG6 gene, which encodes a sterol C24-methyltransferase, have been shown to lead to alterations in susceptibility to various antifungal agents, including reduced sensitivity to this compound in Candida glabrata. mdpi.comnih.gov Deletion of ERG6 in C. lusitaniae resulted in increased resistance to amphotericin B and increased sensitivity to fluconazole, possibly due to decreased ergosterol content leading to fewer polyene targets but increased membrane permeability to azoles. asm.org In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, targeted deletion of ERG3 has been coupled with resistance to both azoles and this compound. nih.gov

Modification of Drug Target Structures

Resistance can also arise from modifications to the structure of the drug target itself, ergosterol, or the surrounding membrane environment, which can reduce the affinity of the polyene for ergosterol. ejgm.co.ukasm.org While the primary target is ergosterol, changes in the ratio of sterols to phospholipids or reorientation or masking of ergosterol within the cell membrane could potentially hinder polyene binding. ejgm.co.uk Although less common than alterations in biosynthesis, structural changes that prevent effective drug-target interaction are a recognized resistance mechanism for various antibiotics and could theoretically apply to polyenes interacting with ergosterol. skintherapyletter.comnih.govreactgroup.org

Insights from Mutagenesis and Laboratory-Induced Resistance Studies

Much of the understanding regarding the mechanisms of resistance to polyenes in fungal species has been derived from studies utilizing mutants generated in laboratory settings. nih.gov These studies often involve techniques such as growing cells in the presence of increasing concentrations of antifungal agents (multistep mutants), exposing cells to a gradient concentration, or creating mutants through one-step mutation using mutagenic agents. nih.gov

Laboratory studies have shown that polyene resistance can result from an alteration of sterols in the cell membrane of mutants. microbiologyresearch.org For instance, analysis of this compound-resistant Candida mutants isolated in vivo indicated a total absence of ergosterol and an increased level of a possible precursor. researchgate.net Successive culturing of these resistant strains in a medium supplemented with ergosterol induced a sensitivity to this compound similar to that of the wild-type strain. researchgate.net Resistance was recovered after subculture in medium without ergosterol, highlighting the role of ergosterol content in this compound sensitivity. researchgate.net

Genetic analysis of this compound-resistant mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has identified several genes involved in resistance. cambridge.orgcambridge.org Studies have described primary genes, including dominant (e.g., NYSA, NYSD, NYSE, NYSF) and recessive (e.g., nysB, nysC) genes, responsible for varying levels of this compound resistance. cambridge.org Modifier genes have also been identified that can increase the level of resistance conferred by primary genes. cambridge.org For example, a dominant modifier gene was shown to increase resistance conferred by NYSF, and a recessive modifier gene enhanced resistance due to NYSA. cambridge.org These studies indicate that this compound resistance can be a multigenic trait. cambridge.org

In Dictyostelium discoideum, spontaneous this compound resistance mutations have been categorized into complementation groups, such as nysA, nysB, and nysC. core.ac.uknih.govias.ac.in Mutations in nysB and nysC are associated with alterations in sterol composition, while nysA mutants exhibit wild-type sterols. ias.ac.in Studies using these mutants have also revealed cross-resistance phenotypes. For example, this compound-resistant mutants of Dictyostelium caveatum selected through mutagenesis were found to be cross-resistant to pisatin and other isoflavonoid phytoalexins. ias.ac.in

Concentration-Effect Relationship Studies

Studies examining the concentration-effect relationship of this compound against Candida species have demonstrated concentration-dependent fungicidal activity. nih.govresearchgate.netasm.org This means that increasing concentrations of this compound lead to a greater rate and/or extent of fungal killing. For most tested isolates, fungistatic activity is typically observed at concentrations between 0.5 and 2 times the Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC). nih.gov Rapid fungicidal activity is generally seen at concentrations equal to or greater than 2 times the MIC. nih.gov However, for some species like Candida krusei, fungicidal endpoints may require concentrations of 4 times the MIC or higher. nih.gov The rate of kill for polyenes like this compound is more dependent on concentration than the extent of kill due to their efficient killing mechanism. nih.gov

Time-Kill Kinetics and Postantifungal Effects (PAFE)

Time-kill kinetics studies assess the rate at which this compound kills fungal cells over a specific period. These studies have shown that this compound exhibits concentration-dependent killing against Candida species. nih.govresearchgate.netoup.comcapes.gov.brnih.govasm.org As this compound concentrations increase, the time required to achieve a significant reduction in fungal colony-forming units (CFU) decreases. nih.govoup.comms-editions.cl

The Postantifungal Effect (PAFE) refers to the suppression of fungal growth that persists after the drug concentration has fallen below the MIC. This compound has been shown to produce a pronounced PAFE against Candida species. nih.govresearchgate.netcapes.gov.brasm.orgoup.comoup.com Studies have indicated that even short exposure periods (e.g., 30 minutes) to this compound at concentrations ranging from 25% to 100% of the MIC can result in a PAFE lasting for several hours (e.g., 5-6 hours). nih.govoup.com The PAFE of this compound is concentration-dependent, with higher concentrations generally leading to longer PAFEs. oup.com

Table 1: Representative Time-Kill Kinetics Data for this compound Against Candida Species (Illustrative based on search results)

Note: Specific values vary depending on the fungal isolate and experimental conditions.

Table 2: Representative Postantifungal Effect (PAFE) Data for this compound Against Candida albicans (Illustrative based on search results)

Note: Specific values vary depending on the fungal isolate and experimental conditions.

Hemolytic Activity Research

Hemolytic activity, the ability of a compound to lyse red blood cells, is a significant concern with polyene antifungals like this compound due to their interaction with cholesterol in mammalian cell membranes. google.comsemanticscholar.org In vitro studies have demonstrated that this compound exhibits hemolytic activity. google.comsemanticscholar.orgnih.govasm.orgmdpi.com The degree of hemolysis is concentration-dependent. google.com Studies comparing this compound with its derivatives have shown that modifications to the this compound molecule can influence its hemolytic potential. semanticscholar.orgasm.orgmdpi.com For example, some semisynthetic derivatives have shown reduced hemolytic activity compared to native this compound. semanticscholar.orgmdpi.com Liposomal formulations have also been investigated as a strategy to reduce the hemolytic toxicity of this compound. google.com Studies have shown that certain formulations can increase the concentration of this compound required to cause 50% hemolysis compared to free this compound. google.com

Table 3: Comparative Hemolytic Activity (Illustrative based on search results)

Note: Specific values vary depending on the study and experimental conditions.

Cytotoxicity in Epithelial Cell Models

The cytotoxicity of this compound has been evaluated in various in vitro cell lines, including epithelial cells. Studies using human keratinocyte cell lines (e.g., HaCat) and reconstituted human oral epithelium (RHOE) models have shown that this compound can exhibit toxicity to these cells. researchgate.netmostwiedzy.plresearchgate.netnih.gov This cytotoxicity is related to this compound's interaction with cholesterol in mammalian cell membranes. drugbank.comgoogle.combiorxiv.orgsemanticscholar.org

Research on this compound derivatives has aimed to reduce host cell toxicity while maintaining antifungal efficacy. Studies have indicated that certain derivatives of this compound A1, particularly those with modifications at the amino group, show reduced toxicity against human keratinocytes and oral epithelial cells compared to the parent compound. researchgate.netmostwiedzy.plresearchgate.netnih.gov For instance, lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, a marker of cell damage, was found to be significantly lower in RHOE models treated with certain this compound derivatives compared to native this compound. researchgate.netmostwiedzy.plnih.gov Similarly, studies on Vero E6 kidney cells have indicated that this compound is only slightly toxic up to certain concentrations (e.g., 250 µg/ml), while higher concentrations can lead to reduced cell viability. biorxiv.orgoup.com

Table 4: Comparative Cytotoxicity in Epithelial Cell Models (Illustrative based on search results)

Modifications within the Polyol Region

The polyol region of this compound, specifically the C-7 to C-10 positions, has been identified as having a significant influence on antifungal activity. asm.orgresearchgate.net Biosynthetic engineering targeting this region has involved the removal or introduction of hydroxyl groups. researchgate.netnih.gov For instance, modifications in the C-9-C-10 region of the heptaene this compound analogue S44HP, such as the introduction of a C-9 hydroxyl group through inactivation of the dehydratase domain in module 15 (DH15), have been shown to drastically decrease both antifungal and hemolytic activities of the resulting analogues. researchgate.netnih.gov Conversely, the single removal of the C-10 hydroxyl group by inactivating the P450 monooxygenase NysL had only a marginal effect on these activities. researchgate.netnih.gov Studies comparing the positions of hydroxyl groups in different polyene antibiotics suggest that the most active compounds have hydroxyl groups at positions C-8 and C-9 or C-7 and C-10, while those with hydroxyl groups at both C-7 and C-9 exhibit lower activity. asm.orgresearchgate.net Modifications in the polyol region (C-5, C-7, and C9+C10) have generally resulted in compounds with reduced antifungal activity and toxicity, although the specific effect varies depending on the modification. core.ac.uk

Alterations at the C-16 Exocyclic Group

The exocyclic carboxyl group at the C-16 position is another target for modification. nih.gov Replacing the C-16 carboxyl group with a methyl group, for example, through the inactivation of the P450 monooxygenase NysN, has been explored. researchgate.net Research indicates that the replacement of the C-16 carboxyl with a methyl group does not significantly impact the in vitro antifungal activity of antibiotics that lack modifications at the amino group of the mycosamine. asm.orgresearchgate.net However, in N-modified derivatives, the activity is modulated by the presence of either a CH3 or COOH group at C-16, as well as the structure of the modifying substituent. asm.orgresearchgate.net

Investigation of Glycosylation and Mycosamine Moiety Impact

The mycosamine sugar moiety, attached at the C-19 position, is crucial for the biological activity of this compound. mdpi.comnih.govnih.gov The absence of mycosamine can lead to a dramatic reduction in antifungal activity. nih.gov Biosynthetic studies have focused on the genes involved in mycosamine biosynthesis and attachment, such as nysDI, nysDII, and nysDIII. nih.gov While mycosamine is important for antifungal activity, it also contributes significantly to the hemolytic activity (toxicity) of this compound. nih.gov This makes the mycosamine moiety a potential target for modifications aimed at reducing toxicity while retaining antifungal efficacy. nih.gov The C2' hydroxyl of mycosamine is particularly important, as modifications at this position in Amphotericin B analogues have shown improved selectivity for ergosterol over cholesterol. mdpi.com Increasing the extent of glycosylation by adding a second sugar moiety, such as to the C4' hydroxyl of mycosamine, has been shown in some polyene analogues to lead to higher solubility and reduced hemolytic toxicity. mdpi.comresearchgate.net

Impact of Structural Changes on Membrane Interaction

This compound's mechanism of action involves binding to ergosterol in the fungal cell membrane and forming pores, leading to membrane permeabilization and cell death. wikipedia.orgdrugbank.com Structural changes in the this compound molecule can significantly impact its interaction with membrane lipids and, consequently, its antifungal activity and toxicity. mdpi.comnih.govresearchgate.net

The polyene region, with its conjugated double bonds, is involved in hydrophobic interactions with membrane sterols like ergosterol. researchgate.net The number of conjugated double bonds influences antifungal activity; for example, Amphotericin B, with seven conjugated double bonds, generally has higher antifungal activity than this compound, which has four conjugated double bonds and a diene, presumably due to more efficient hydrophobic interaction. mdpi.comnih.gov

The polyol region also plays a role in membrane interaction. Modifications in this region can affect both antifungal and hemolytic activities. core.ac.uk

The mycosamine moiety and the exocyclic carboxyl group contribute to the amphoteric character of this compound and are important for biological activity and toxicity. mdpi.com The zwitterionic interaction between the C16 carboxyl group and the mycosamine amino group can influence solubility and potentially membrane interaction. mdpi.com

Studies using model membranes, such as Langmuir monolayers and liposomes, have provided insights into how this compound and its derivatives interact with lipid bilayers containing ergosterol (mimicking fungal membranes) and cholesterol (mimicking mammalian membranes). mdpi.comnih.gov These studies have shown that this compound exhibits higher affinity for ergosterol compared to cholesterol, which underlies its selective toxicity. drugbank.comnih.govfishersci.ca The presence of phospholipids in the membrane can also play a key role in the interaction and the resulting antifungal activity and toxicity. nih.gov

Structural modifications can alter the ability of this compound derivatives to permeabilize membranes. For instance, some mono-N-alkylated derivatives have shown membrane activity comparable to the original antibiotics, and their selectivity for ergosterol-containing membranes has correlated well with their in vitro activity and cytotoxicity. mdpi.com However, for other derivatives, such as amides of this compound, a clear correlation between membrane activity in model systems and in vitro biological activity has not always been observed. mdpi.com

The formation of membrane-spanning pores by this compound is a key aspect of its function. drugbank.comfishersci.ca The size and characteristics of these pores can be influenced by the structure of the polyene molecule and the composition of the membrane. mdpi.com While the barrel-stave model has been proposed for pore formation, the exact mechanism remains a topic of debate, and other factors, such as the influence of polyenes on membrane biophysical properties and organization, are also considered important. mdpi.comresearchgate.net Structural modifications can affect the oligomerization state of this compound in the membrane and the stability and ion selectivity of the formed pores. mdpi.com

Correlation between Chemical Structure and Antifungal Potency

The antifungal activity of polyene antibiotics like this compound is closely linked to specific regions of their chemical structure. The polyene macrolide ring, particularly the conjugated double bond system, and the polyol region play significant roles in the interaction with ergosterol and subsequent membrane disruption. researchgate.netresearchgate.net

Research has highlighted the importance of the C-7 to C-10 polyol region for antifungal activity. asm.orgresearchgate.net Studies comparing this compound analogues with modifications in this region have shown that the position of hydroxyl groups significantly influences potency. Compounds with hydroxyl groups at positions C-8 and C-9 or C-7 and C-10 tend to exhibit higher antifungal activity. researchgate.netnih.gov Conversely, antibiotics with hydroxyl groups at both C-7 and C-9 have demonstrated lower activity. researchgate.netnih.gov

Modifications to the mycosamine sugar moiety, specifically the amino group, can also affect antifungal activity. nih.govnih.gov While the replacement of the C-16 carboxyl group with a methyl group did not significantly impact the in vitro antifungal activity of derivatives without modifications at the mycosamine amino group, the activity of N-modified derivatives was influenced by both the C-16 modification and the structure of the substituent on the amino group. researchgate.netnih.gov For instance, some N-substituted this compound derivatives have shown weaker antifungal activity compared to the parent compound against Candida strains. pg.edu.pl

The conjugated polyene chain is essential for the interaction with sterols in the fungal membrane. mdpi.com The length and configuration of this lipophilic region contribute to the molecule's ability to insert into the lipid bilayer and form pores.

Modifications Influencing Solubility and Selective Toxicity in Research Models

A major challenge with this compound is its poor aqueous solubility, which limits its formulation options and systemic use. mdpi.commdpi.comnih.govpg.edu.pl Furthermore, its toxicity to mammalian cells, primarily due to some interaction with cholesterol, necessitates the development of modifications that enhance selective toxicity towards fungal cells. mdpi.comnih.govpg.edu.pl

Chemical modifications have been explored to improve both solubility and the activity/toxicity ratio. Amidation of the C16-carboxylic group is one such strategy. nih.govresearchgate.net New this compound amides have been synthesized with considerably higher solubility in water compared to the parent antibiotic. nih.gov For some of these amide derivatives, solubility exceeding 100 g/L has been reported, a significant improvement over this compound's solubility of 0.36 g/L. nih.gov

Modifications at the amino group of the mycosamine moiety have also been investigated for their effect on selective toxicity. pg.edu.pl While some N-substituted this compound derivatives showed weaker antifungal activity, they were found to be less toxic to mammalian cells in research models, with some exhibiting non-hemolytic properties. pg.edu.pl However, studies suggest that introducing large steric hindrance at the nitrogen atom of this compound may not significantly improve selective toxicity in vitro. pg.edu.pl

Research using model membranes containing either ergosterol (fungal) or cholesterol (mammalian) helps to assess the selective toxicity of this compound derivatives. mdpi.comnih.gov An increased ratio of selective permeabilization of ergosterol-containing membranes versus cholesterol-containing membranes generally correlates with an improved activity/toxicity ratio observed in cell-based assays. nih.gov Some new water-soluble this compound derivatives have demonstrated a prominent improvement in safety in these studies and are considered promising candidates for further drug development. nih.gov

The development of solid dispersions with carrier agents like maltodextrin has also been explored to improve this compound's solubility and enhance its antifungal efficacy, particularly against Candida spp. biofilms in research models. mdpi.com

Interactive Table 1: Summary of Selected this compound Modifications and Their Effects in Research Models

UV/VIS Absorption and Fluorescence Spectroscopy

UV/VIS absorption spectroscopy is a fundamental technique for this compound analysis. The absorption spectrum in the UV/VIS region exhibits a vibronic structure with characteristic maximums (λmax). redalyc.org Studies have reported λmax values for this compound in methanol at approximately 292 nm, 304 nm, and 320 nm, which are related to the conjugated double bonds in its macrolactone ring. redalyc.org These absorption bands are affected by factors such as the solvent used. For instance, in a dioxane-water solution (7:3), this compound shows three well-defined optical absorption maximums. scispace.com

Fluorescence spectroscopy can also be applied to this compound. While absorption spectra show a clear vibronic structure, fluorimetric analysis may not always comply with the mirror image rule. redalyc.org The fluorescence decay of this compound can be two-fold exponential, suggesting the presence of multiple fluorophores, with their contribution influenced by the solvent's nature and its effect on the flexibility sites of the tetraenic chromophore. epa.gov UV irradiation can lead to a decrease in fluorescence intensity and changes in the absorption spectrum, attributed to the trans-cis isomerization of the tetraenic chain. epa.gov

UV/VIS spectrophotometry is also utilized for the quantitative determination of this compound in pharmaceutical formulations, often employing solvents like a dioxane-water mixture (7:3) or phosphate-citrate buffer pH 5.5, which are suitable for dissolving this compound prior to analysis. researchgate.net However, the low solubility of this compound can pose challenges for bioanalytical analysis. scispace.comresearchgate.net

Photochemical Transformation in Analytical Contexts

This compound is known to be sensitive to light, and this photosensitivity can be exploited or must be considered in analytical methods. scispace.comresearchgate.netnih.gov Controlled photochemical transformation of this compound solutions can be used as a basis for quantitative analysis. scispace.comresearchgate.net By irradiating a this compound solution, its optical absorbance changes, and this change can serve as an analytical signal proportional to the this compound concentration. scispace.comresearchgate.net The effect of irradiation is observed across all absorption maximums, but it is often most pronounced at specific wavelengths, such as 322 nm. researchgate.net Studies have shown that this compound undergoes photodegradation in a two-step consecutive manner upon UV irradiation. nih.govresearchgate.net

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Development and Validation

HPLC is a widely used method for the analysis of this compound in various matrices, including pharmaceutical formulations and biological samples. Developing and validating robust HPLC methods is crucial for quality control and stability studies. A typical HPLC method for this compound involves reversed-phase chromatography. sci-hub.senih.govuobasrah.edu.iq

Method development often focuses on achieving adequate separation of this compound from its degradation products and excipients. nih.govuobasrah.edu.iqscielo.br For instance, a method for evaluating this compound stability in an ointment achieved resolutions higher than 2 for this compound and its degradation products using an Inerstil ODS-3 column with isocratic elution (methanol:water) and UV detection at 305 nm. scielo.brscielo.br Another validated RP-HPLC method used an Ion Pac column (Arcus EP-C18) with a mobile phase of ammonium acetate buffer/methanol mixture (30:70) and UV detection at 305 nm, demonstrating linearity over a range of 5–500 µg/mL. nih.govuobasrah.edu.iq

Validation of HPLC methods for this compound typically includes assessing parameters such as specificity, linearity, limit of detection (LOD), limit of quantification (LOQ), precision, accuracy, and robustness, following guidelines from regulatory bodies like ICH. nih.govuobasrah.edu.iqscielo.br For the RP-HPLC method mentioned above, the LOD and LOQ were determined to be 0.01 and 0.025 µg/mL, respectively. nih.govuobasrah.edu.iq

HPLC methods have also been developed for the determination of this compound in biological fluids like saliva. sci-hub.se A validated isocratic RP-HPLC method for this compound in human saliva used a Luna™ C18 column with a mobile phase of MeOH, H2O, and DMF (70:20:10, v/v/v) and detection by both UV and fluorescence, showing linearity from 0.78 to 50 μg/ml. sci-hub.se The use of dimethylformamide in the mobile phase can help reduce peak tailing. sci-hub.se

Here is a summary of parameters from a validated HPLC method for this compound:

Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) Applications

LC-MS, particularly LC-MS/MS, offers high sensitivity and selectivity for the analysis of this compound, especially in complex matrices or when analyzing low concentrations. This technique is valuable for pharmacokinetic studies and the detection of this compound residues.

LC-MS methods have been developed for the quantitative determination of this compound in human plasma. nih.govresearchgate.net One such method utilized solid-phase extraction (SPE) on C18 cartridges for sample preparation, followed by isocratic chromatography on a reversed-phase column and detection by tandem mass spectrometry with electrospray ionization (ESI) in positive selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. nih.govresearchgate.net The method monitored the molecular ion [M+H]+ at m/z 926.6 for this compound. nih.govresearchgate.net This method was validated and successfully applied to quantify this compound in human plasma in pharmacokinetic trials. nih.govresearchgate.net

LC-MS/MS is also employed for the detection of this compound residues in food products like muscle, milk, and eggs. fda.gov.twnih.gov A screening method for veterinary drug residues, including this compound, in animal-derived foods used LC-MS/MS after extraction and purification. fda.gov.twnih.gov Chromatographic separation was achieved on a C18 column, and the method demonstrated linearity and acceptable recovery and precision for this compound at relevant concentration levels. nih.gov

LC-MS/MS can also be used for the identification of this compound or this compound-like compounds by analyzing their fragmentation patterns. researchgate.net The main fragmentation mode involves the loss of water molecules. researchgate.net

Magnetic Nanocomposites for Controlled Release

Agricultural Applications

Research in agriculture has focused on this compound's potential as a biopesticide, particularly for controlling post-harvest fungal diseases that lead to significant crop losses.

Recent studies have confirmed the inhibitory effects of this compound on the growth and development of Botrytis cinerea, the fungus responsible for gray mold, a primary cause of post-harvest loss in table grapes. researchgate.netmdpi.com The application of this compound was found to disrupt the membrane permeability of B. cinerea, leading to cellular leakage and death. researchgate.netmdpi.com Transcriptome analysis revealed that this compound treatment altered the expression of genes related to the fungus's cellular machinery and metabolic processes, ultimately reducing its pathogenicity. researchgate.netmdpi.com These findings suggest this compound could be a viable agent for managing gray mold on post-harvest table grapes. researchgate.net

This compound has also been proposed for broader use in preventing post-harvest losses in various crops. mdpi.com For instance, regulations in some regions have permitted the use of this compound on the skin of bananas to prevent mold. fao.orgwikipedia.org However, its application in plant tissue culture has shown limitations. In a study on blueberry cultivars, this compound added to the culture medium to control contamination was found to inhibit plantlet growth and, at low concentrations, even induced plantlet death, suggesting a level of phytotoxicity. kspbtjpb.org

Table 1: Summary of Research Findings for this compound in Agricultural Applications

Veterinary Applications

In veterinary medicine, this compound is used to treat fungal infections, primarily those caused by Candida species. Its use in many animal species is considered "off-label" or "extra-label," meaning it is used in a manner not specifically described on the product label, a common practice in veterinary medicine. vcacanada.com

This compound is utilized to treat fungal infections of the mouth and gastrointestinal tract in cats, dogs, reptiles, and birds. vcacanada.com It is also a component in topical and otic (ear) preparations for dogs and cats to treat skin and ear infections caused by susceptible yeasts. monvet.competplace.comresearchgate.net For poultry, this compound can be added to feed or drinking water to treat and prevent candidiasis (also known as crop mycosis or thrush), an opportunistic infection that can occur after the disruption of normal microflora. apsnbiotech.commsdvetmanual.com

Beyond candidiasis, in vitro research has explored other potential applications. One study investigated the effects of this compound on Babesia gibsoni, a protozoan parasite that infects canine red blood cells. The study found that this compound could destroy the parasite through its ionophorous activity without harming the host's red blood cells or leukocytes in the lab setting. nih.gov

Table 2: Summary of Research Findings for this compound in Veterinary Applications

Material Science Applications

The unique properties of this compound have attracted interest in material science for creating advanced materials with antifungal capabilities.

One significant area of research is the development of active food packaging. Scientists have successfully incorporated this compound into biodegradable polymer composites to create antifungal films. researchgate.netzenodo.org In one study, this compound was melt-mixed with Polycaprolactone (PCL) and then with Polylactic acid (PLA) to produce composite films. These films demonstrated good activity against a range of pathogenic and foodborne fungi, including Candida and Penicillium species, with a sustained release of this compound for up to four days. researchgate.netzenodo.org This research highlights the potential for using this compound to develop biodegradable packaging that can extend the shelf-life of food products. researchgate.netzenodo.org Similarly, this compound has been studied for retarding spoilage in cottage cheese. nih.gov

In a different application, this compound has been investigated as a corrosion inhibitor for mild steel in acidic environments. researchgate.net Electrochemical and computational studies suggested that the this compound molecule could adsorb onto the steel surface, acting as an effective mixed-type inhibitor to slow down the corrosion process. researchgate.net

This compound has also been used in the preservation of cultural artifacts. Notably, a derivative of this compound was applied to protect wood panel paintings that were damaged by mold following a major flood in Florence, Italy, in 1966. wikipedia.org Furthermore, the compound has been used to create various polymeric films and hydrogels, often as a model drug to test drug release properties for biomedical systems, which nonetheless contributes to the fundamental understanding of its behavior within polymer matrices. brieflands.comnih.govnih.gov

Table 3: Summary of Research Findings for this compound in Material Science